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Community development is more effective when it utilizes principles of self-help, felt needs, and participation (Bhattacharyya, 1995). When a community displays higher levels of felt needs, individuals are more likely to think of problems as relevant and a priority for instituting change. However, Stone (1989) points out that different cultures have distinctive views of how principles of self-help, felt needs, and participation are expressed. Her work in Nepal showed that a Western notion of development through self reliance and individualism did not compliment the Nepalese view of physical development and outside participation (Stone, 1989). This notion of cross cultural variability argues for spending time and allocating resources to develop a body of knowledge concerning the problems facing a community before change can be implemented. Community Developers should utilize participatory methods to gain insight into the strengths and weaknesses within a local cultural group or community (Rubin and Rubin, 2008). As noted by Rubin and Rubin (2008), the benefits of utilizing participatory methods in research and programs are that knowledge of problems are linked with actions needed and solutions are generated by community stakeholders who will benefit from change.

There are many different types of participatory approachess that can be utilized to help a community to define their needs. Three methods described in the Participation and Social Assessment Toolkit (1998) were Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), Self Esteem, Associative strength, Resourcefulness, Action planning, responsibility (SARAR), and the Beneficiary Assessment (BA). PRA moves from information sharing, through consultation and collaboration into empowerment with qualitative methods of semi-structured interviews, mapping, and venn diagrams. SARAR empowers stakeholders and community members to be more capable and aware of community problems by using methods of non-serial posters, mapping, pocket charts, three pile sorting, and force-field analysis. BA is the qualitative method of info gathering on beneficiary perceptions toward an activity. Through focus groups, semi-structured interview, and observations, information can be gathered, quantified, and tabulated to show how improvements will be valued by stakeholders (Reitenberg and Narayan, 1998).

Although participatory methods are valuable in mobilizing communities to achieve their goals, they can inadvertently give more power to already empowered community groups. Groups in a community that have more power are more engaged and already have their voice and perspective heard. Some groups have less power because of under representation and exclusion stemming from economic and cultural differences. I experience this in my own Hartford neighborhood, which is made up of affluent condo owners on one side and less affluent Latino residents on the other. In the middle of the neighborhood is a methadone clinic and last year state officials engaged our community group in participatory methods to decide if the clinic should be relocated to encourage development. Unfortunately, our group is mostly made up of those who definitely would like to see the clinic moved. The focus group approach did little to access the opinions and needs of less affluent individuals in the community who might be utilizing the clinic for services. A better approach in avoiding giving affluent and engaged residents more power in this example would have been to conduct focus groups and interviews with Latinos who might be underrepresented in a community group. A variety of participatory methods should be strategically used in a community to develop solutions that are inclusive of all stakeholders regardless of how engaged they are in community activities.

Whenever we speak of participatory approach, it is important to bring up the concept of accountability. Accountability plays a central role in ensuring the maintenance of solid relations between the different stakeholders involved in a development project. There are two types: first is the upward accountability “associated with relationships that face up the aid chain” (from NGO to donor). Second is the downward accountability in contrary “associated with relationships that face down the aid chain” (from NGO to local beneficiaries) (BOND, 2006). We feel like when done right, the participatory approach would be tied to the downward accountability. Making the leaders of the project be accountable to their beneficiaries, would encourage the community members to be involved and committed to its success, and thus its sustainability. On the other hand, if the project defines participatory approach as mainly a top-to-bottom relationship between leaders and beneficiaries, the participation of the locals then becomes limited. As a result, the sustainability of the project becomes at risk. Another issue of the participatory approach is that increasing the participation of the locals could cause deep conflicts within the community when not all groups are represented in the development process. Furthermore, with a large number of participants in the planning process of a project, communication and information sharing could get ambiguous and troublesome (Rogers, 2008).

The first step into evaluation participatory approaches is to evaluate the social and cultural norms of the society. Many staff members from the West determine the best method of creating community participation is by encouraging participants to “take matters in their own hands” and to participate in their own development. There are often gaps in between the ideals and rhetoric of community participation and “the actual practices of so called participatory programs” (Stone, 1989). Those staff members believe egalitarian self reliance is important to the community development project, for without this key ingredient, participants will continually rely on the project with an “antithesis of development” (Stone, 1989). Without self reliance, the participation will depend on those organizers to continually motivate development. However, another person may view development as buildings and other visible structures. Just as in Nepal, the community was surveyed and did not view messages like “bikas,” as development (Stone, 1989). Therefore the people may not be motivated to change behaviors or attitudes relating to a project that they do not view as development.

It is vital to the success of a project to help the locals develop a sense of its ownership. When the members of the community are involved in the decision making process, they develop a sense of ownership towards the project at hand (Rogers et. al, 2008). Sustainability depends on the level of ownership that the locals feel they have over the project. “Self reliance” and “taking initiative” are Western cultural values that may not be accepted by all communities. Therefore multiple strategies should be used. Instead of labeling the community as independent from the government and NGOS, label the organizations as dependent on them. Without the participation of the community, the project will not work, thus in reality the institutions are dependent on the community’s participation. The expression “build it and they will come” is relevant to participatory approach because people need motivation. As in a watershed project in Nepal, as the project became more realistic, the community increased creative ideas as well (Stone, 1989). A sustained communication effort is a must in the community to involve participation in planning, decision making and implementation of the project. In Nepal, the participatory approach was more familiar to the community as “obey” rather than self rely (Stone, 1989). We believe and agree with Stone that rather than independence, there should be interdependence between the community and outsiders (Stone, 1989).

Participatory approaches certainly do add to sustainable development. While much research can be done online, face to face interviewing still has benefits not provided by web collection. As Rubin and Rubin (2008) point out, “Going door to door to talk with people informally or to survey them on their concerns expands the capacity of the organization by becoming part of recruitment.” Activism often follows with those being surveyed wanting to get involved. The depth interview is a participatory approach that stirs feeling which goes a long way in appealing for action or resources. These interviews, like focus group interviewing can bring clarity to initial observations and help those in a community know they are not alone in what they experience or feel. “Depth interviews elicit rich, detailed accounts of events as well as individual feelings, experiences, and perceptions. These individual narratives of suffering become the human face of social problems that must be solved.” (Rubin & Rubin, P.159).
Stone (1989), in her caution of not forcing ownership and independence when capacity building cultural environment is not in line with this, shares how participatory approached can foster “interdependence between villagers and their government development agencies and institutions, or between villagers and outsiders.” The participatory approach thus teaches participants and outsiders, whether government agencies or international NGO’s, to better understand, relate, and help one another. Participatory approaches could give also give more power to powerful groups if left unchecked. Power is neither inherently good or bad. Power is the ability to act and accomplish what you want. Getting things done in the world takes power. This is the basic law of physics ( Brown, 2006). The tools and techniques that could be used in preventing powerful groups from having more powers are; first, employing democratic principles in all decision making that will give equal power to all

The ability to communicate is important in all aspects of life. In business, having

excellent communication skills are important. A successful business manager should have excellent communication skills, both oral and written. The ability to communicate effectively with others is named by many employers as a top attribute of the successful business person.

Communication skills reflect on organization’s image as well as the imageof the manager.

Goodwill is the positive feeling or attitude that you show or that customers have about a business that encourages customer loyalty.

Communication skills are important in today’s changing business world. These changes include:

Increased use of technology
Increased global competition
Restructured management and/or product lines
Increased quality emphasis and customer focus
Increased focus on ethical and legal concerns

Technology has had the greatest impact on how we communicate because of

e-mail,
voice mail,
teleconferences,
computer networks,
Fax machines,
and the Internet.

Technology is used to assist in collecting, preparing, and sharing information.

We live in a global economy. Global competition affects the way we communicate. Correct grammar is vital since the information communicated will be based on a literal translation of the original message.

People communicate for different reasons.

Those include:

To inform (to provide information on a new product line)
To request (request information on a product)
To persuade (convince someone to buy a product, deal with an organization)
To build goodwill (congratulations, thank you)

How We Communicate

We communicate in several ways:

Written communications—letters, memos, reports, e-mail, faxes
Oral communications—one-on-one meetings, phone conversations, speeches,

video conferencing, group meetings

Nonverbal communications—eye contact, facial expressions, body language,

physical appearance (see below)

Active listening—listening with a high level of concentration; listening for

information

Some of the silent messages people convey through nonverbal communication consist of:

1. Eye contact—indifference, wandering

2. Facial expressions: smile (agreement), frowns (disagreement, surprise

3. Body language: folded arms (closed to suggestions); sitting upright (confidence,

pride)

4. Tone and volume of voice: emotions conveyed through pitch, etc.

5. Physical appearance: clean, well dressed;

What we say nonverbally may communicate more than our spoken words.

Listening skills include active listening (making oneself hear what is being said). People speak at a rate of 100-200 words per minute and can hear up to 500 words per minute.

Some of the barriers that interfere with effective listening include:

1. Physical appearance of the individual and of the room

2. Manner of speaking; voice quality of speaker

3. Mental distractions (mind wandering, thinking of other problems)

4. Physical/health concerns (hungry, cold, tired)

Basics for Communicating Effectively

The basics for communicating effectively include:

Determine the purpose of your communication:
Identify the audience: Who is the receiver of the communication?
Consider what the audience needs to hear.
Develop a clear, concise, correct, logical message.
Maintain a positive attitude

The invitation stated that “all secretaries and their husbands” were invited. The secretaries were upset and claimed that this wording was sexist. The organization should have used gender-neutral language, such as “secretaries and their guests.”

Other do’s and don’ts as we work in and face situations that may present ethical/legal

challenges:

1. Do not intentionally or unintentionally misrepresent or mislead others in your

communication: ethical, legal.

2. Do not omit vital information that is relevant to the situation: ethical, legal.

3. Do not give false or incomplete information: ethical, legal.

4. Do not try to manipulate people with your communication: ethical, legal, cultural

diversity.

5. Do guard against damaging another person’s name and reputation by making false

accusations: ethical, legal

6. Do familiarize yourself with the laws pertaining to any communication for which

you are responsible: ethical, legal

a. Ethics: moral principles or standards

b. Slander: orally defaming an individual’s character; calling someone a

name (liar, incompetent, untrustworthy)

c. Libel: defaming someone’s character in writing

PRINCIPLES OF WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Using Written Communication

Written communication is used over oral communication for the following reasons:

1. Conveying complex information (charts, graphs)

2. Reaching your intended receiver (person hard to reach by phone)

3. Providing proof of the communication (evidence of what was said in the

communication)

4. Ensuring confidentiality of information (information cannot be overheard)

5. Providing convenience for your reader (can look at communication when time

permits)

6. Expediting the response to the communication (reader can refer to the original

correspondence when responding)

7. Planning your message (Allows writer to spend time on the content)

8. Saving time and money (less expensive than a visit or phone call)

9. Stressing the importance of the communication (letter may provide greater

importance especially if sent by a courier service)

10. Aiding in the distribution of the same information to several individuals (each

person receives exactly the same information)

11. Translating international communications (allows time to translate)

Good Letter Writing Techniques

The real test of good written communication is the total effect it has on the reader. The goals in producing written messages include:

A message that is structurally complete

A message that achieves its purpose quickly, clearly, and effectively

The Impact of a Unified Message

In planning your message you will need to consider the following:

The purpose of the communication

Your intended audience

The content of the communication

The organization of the message

The Total Effect on the Reader

Simple words and sentences will aid the understanding of your message. The simple

sentence (subject/verb) is the most useful. Do not use all simple sentences but vary

sentences to add variety to writing. Writers need to visualize their receivers getting the communication. How will they feel and react upon receiving the communication?

The Six Tests of Effective Correspondence

Effectiveness in letter writing also includes: positive attitude, conversational writing

style, tone, and the “you attitude.” With the “you attitude” the reader is put first in the

communication. It is a “you” attitude, and not a “me” attitude. Another important point in letter writing is to build goodwill. All letters, no matter what type, are goodwill messages.

The six tests of effective correspondence include:

1. Courteous—polite, tactful, friendly and reader-centered; apply the “put yourself

in the reader’s shoes” test; avoid words which cause unfavorable reactions; reflect

the desire to be helpful, pleasant and courteous.

2. Clear—easy to understand; use the active voice in messages (subject performs

the action

3. Complete—contains all essential information needed by the receiver for action.

Anticipate additional information that the reader may require.

4. Concise—use as few words as possible to communicate clearly and courteously;

strip communications of unnecessary words; eliminate irrelevant details; combine

information.

5. Correct—pay attention to details; proofread carefully

6.  Consistent—state things the same each time; verify details.

 

 

 

In any divorce proceeding, the issue of how to divide assets and debts must be resolved. This article provides a framework for understanding Arizona marital property law and determining whether an asset is separate property or community property.

Community Property and Separate Property.

Community property is marital property. It includes all assets accumulated during the marriage, regardless of whether the asset is in one spouse’s name or the other. A.R.S. § 25-211. Although assets acquired during the marriage will likely be community property and subject to equal division between the spouses, there are exceptions: the asset was owned prior to the marriage, or was acquired by gift, or acquired by inheritance during the marriage. A.R.S. § 25-213.

An asset that is separate property is not a part of the marital estate and will not be subject to division in a divorce. If an asset was acquired before the marriage, it may remain the separate property of one spouse at the time of dissolution. This is not a hard and fast rule. The characterization of property depends in great part on how the asset was used during the marriage, usage can change the asset’s character from separate to community property. Furthermore, a portion of the asset’s value may remain separate property, while a portion becomes marital property. All of this depends on the facts of each individual case.

The parties are always free to agree on the designation of an asset as the separate property of one spouse or the community property of both spouses—this is a part of the negotiation of a divorce.

 

Acquisition Determines the Character of Real Property.

An asset is characterized as either separate property or community property at the time of purchase or acquisition. Separate property, followed by marriage, is still separate property. Generally, when community money is used to pay a mortgage or used to make improvements to the separate real property of one spouse, however, the non-owning spouse is entitled to reimbursement. That is, reimbursement for the community money spent on the other spouse’s separate property.

Here’s an example:  Husband owned a home prior to the marriage, his separate property. During the marriage, marital funds were used to pay down his mortgage thereby reducing the principal owed. The reduction in principal may be a community asset subject to division. If marital funds were used to improve Husband’s property which resulted in an increased property value, then that increase in value is a community asset, too.

 

Transmutation of Separate Property into Community Property.

Transmutation of separate property means the ownership has changed — what started as separate property was converted into marital property. The methods of transmutation are straightforward: transmutation by agreement between the spouses, transmutation by gift from the owning spouse to the community, or transmutation by commingling the separate property with marital property so much so that it loses its prior separate character.

 

Transmutation by Gifting Real Property – Creating Joint Tenancies.

When one spouse conveys his or her separate real property interest to both spouses as joint tenants, the law presumes it was a gift to the community. This legal presumption can be rebutted, but only with clear and convincing evidence. When a party owns a home prior to the marriage and subsequently conveys title in joint tenancy to both spouses, he or she has gifted the value of the home to the marriage — it becomes a community asset.

Donative intent is required for a valid gift to the community.

The only way to defeat this legal presumption that a joint tenancy conveyance is a gift to the community is to convince the court, by a burden of clear and convincing evidence, that no gift to the community was ever intended – that is, there was no donative intent.

 

Case #1. Sloane v. Sloane — Yes donative intent.

If the alleged transmutation of property occurs by gift, then the usual rules as to sufficiency of evidence apply. One of the first requirements of a valid gift is donative intent. In one case, the husband asserted that, although he transferred his property (acquired before the marriage) from his name to jointly titled property with his wife (during the marriage), the property should not be considered community property because he lacked donative intent. He conveyed the property into joint tenancy not to gift it to the community, but as a testamentary device to avoid a future probate proceeding. The court found husband’s argument insufficient and held the property had been transmuted from separate property into community property. The point from this case? There is a presumption created by a joint tenancy that cannot be overcome by the hidden intentions of one spouse. The legal presumption that the joint tenancy creates a gift to the community can only be overcome by evidence proving a common understanding or agreement between both spouses that the character of the property was to be something other than a joint tenancy.

 

Case #2. Nationwide v. Massabni — No donative intent.

In another case, there was sufficient evidence to show husband never intended a gift of his separate property to the community. The real property deed was in husband’s name only, as his separate property. To avoid garnishment of his separate property by a creditor, he claimed it was really community property. Because only husband was liable on the debt, community property was out-of-reach for this creditor. Husband’s evidence in support of his donative intent to gift his separate real property to the community included a promissory note payable to both spouses over the subject property. The court rejected husband’s claim of community property because, in part, his wife wasn’t added to the promissory note until after his creditor had filed the lawsuit against him. Consequently, the court ruled that there was no donative intent, no gift to the community, and the asset remained husband’s separate property.

 

Joint Tenancy and a Co-Tenant’s Right to Reimbursement.

In a dissolution of marriage, the court may consider the expenditure of separate funds for the purpose of fulfilling existing joint obligations. When property is held in joint tenancy, the law of joint tenancy permits reimbursement to the contributing co-tenant. The court cannot, however, order a substantially unequal division of property held in joint tenancy for the purpose of reimbursing the spouse who used separate funds to acquire that property. A substantially unequal division of property held in joint tenancy can only be agreed upon by the parties.

Here’s a case in point. In Whitmore v. Mitchell the court recognized that spending separate monies after the joint tenancy was created may entitle the contributing spouse to reimbursement. Absent an agreement to the contrary, a court may not order a substantially unequal division of jointly held property solely to reimburse one of the spouses for spending his or her separate funds to acquire the property. This court made an important distinction on the reimbursement of separate funds. First, a joint tenant has a right to reimbursement for separate funds used to improve the jointly held property. When property is acquired with separate funds after the marriage and put in joint tenancy, there is no reimbursement for the separate funds used to buy the property—that was a gift to the community. If after the property is purchased the spouses hold in joint tenancy, then the contributing co-tenant may be reimbursed for separate monies used to benefit the other co-tenant. “[T]here can only be a right to reimbursement when a joint obligation exists. The obligation does not come into existence until the property is purchased [and placed in joint tenancy].” Second, if the asset is community property and separate funds were used to make improvements to it, then the contributing spouse has no right to reimbursement.

(There was one rather extreme case when the Arizona Supreme Court allowed a substantially unequal division of joint tenancy property. The marriage was of extremely short duration, in only two weeks the parties had physically separated and, in another two weeks, had filed for an annulment. Toth v. Toth)

 

The same rule applies to community property — the court cannot order a substantially unequal division of community property for the purpose of reimbursing the spouse who used separate funds to acquire the asset. There is no reimbursement for subsequent expenditures on community property in a divorce either, unless, once again, there is an agreement to reimburse between the parties.

 

Introduction

Communication

Communication is a process where by information is encoded and imparted by a sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing.

It is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding which requires a vast repertoire of skills in intra and inter personal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, memorizing, evaluating e.t.c.

It is through communication that collaboration and co-operation occur directly through education, and by practicing those skills and having them evaluated.

Types of communication

There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language, voice tonality, and words. Based analytical research

53% of impact is determined by body language–postures, gestures, and eye contact, 35% by the tone of voice, and 18% by the content or the words used in the communication process

Though the percentage of influence may differ from variables such as the listener and the speaker, communication as a whole strives for the same goal and thus, in some cases, can be universal, methods of signals, such as voice sounds, pitch or intonation, gestures and written symbols which communicate, thoughts and feelings.

If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, then,can animal communications be considered as a language?” But animals do not have a written form of language communication, yet use a language to communicate with each another. In exsense, an animal communication can be considered as a different language.

Human spoken and written languages can be described as a lexemes (sometimes called system of symbols) and the rules by which the symbols are used. The word “language” is also refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others who surround them. There are millions of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many of the shared properties have some exceptions. Though there is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Bella is credited as saying that “a language is a dialect with a navy or an army”. Constructed languages such as programming languages, and various mathematical formalars are not really restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

verbal communication

A verbal or dialouge is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities (individuals, animals e.t.c).

The etymological origins of the word in Greek dialete ??? (diá,through) + ?????(logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix ???-(diá-,through) and the prefix ??- (di-, two) leading to the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties.

 

Non-verbal communication

Non verbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages through gesture, body or posture languages, facial [removed]eye contact), object communication (clothing, hairstyles or architecture), or symbols or info graphics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication.

Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person’s day to day life, from employment to sexuality to parental responsiblities to romantic engagements.

Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage and prosodic features including voice quality, intonation, emotion and speaking style, rhythm, intonation and stress. Also, written texts may have said to contain nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, and the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.

Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way without body language, voice tonality or words.

 

Non-Human Living Organisms Communication (NHLOC)

 

Communication in many of its facts is not limited to humans alone, or even to primates but to every information exchange between non-living living organisms i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver can be considered as a form of communication. Though, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of issues of ethology. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like virus, bateria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct co-ordinations.

Animal communication is at any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the behavior of other animals. And of course human communication can be presumed as a highly developed form of animal communication called zoosemiotics which is distinguishable from the study of human communication called anthroposemiotics

has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and cognition (the study of animal). This is an evident that humans are able to communicate with animals, especially animals like dolphins and other circuses animals. However, these animals may have to learn the special means in which they can communicate. Animal communication, and the understanding of animal world in general is a rapidly (constant) growing field even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, which have been well revolutionized. Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the rootzone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizobia bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. This parallel sign-mediated interactions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possible because of the decentralized “nervous system” of plants. As recent research shows 99% of intraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of herbivory attack behavior to warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In Stress situations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents

Fungi communicate to co-ordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with non fungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular plants and insects. The used semi chemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content.

 

Communication in relation to academic discipline

Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called “communicology”, relates to all the ways we communicate so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the book, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever expanded understanding of how we all communicate with one individuals or the next.

Communication happens at many levels even for one single action, in many different ways, and for most beings, also in certain machines. If not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range

Introduction

Communication

Communication is a process where by information is encoded and imparted by a sender to a receiver via a channel/medium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speaking, singing and sometimes tone of voice, and nonverbal, physical means, such as body language, sign language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, by using writing.

It is thus a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding which requires a vast repertoire of skills in intra and inter personal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, memorizing, evaluating e.t.c.

It is through communication that collaboration and co-operation occur directly through education, and by practicing those skills and having them evaluated.

Types of communication

There are three major parts in human face to face communication which are body language, voice tonality, and words. Based analytical research

53% of impact is determined by body language–postures, gestures, and eye contact, 35% by the tone of voice, and 18% by the content or the words used in the communication process

Though the percentage of influence may differ from variables such as the listener and the speaker, communication as a whole strives for the same goal and thus, in some cases, can be universal, methods of signals, such as voice sounds, pitch or intonation, gestures and written symbols which communicate, thoughts and feelings.

If a language is about communicating with signals, voice, sounds, gestures, or written symbols, then,can animal communications be considered as a language?” But animals do not have a written form of language communication, yet use a language to communicate with each another. In exsense, an animal communication can be considered as a different language.

Human spoken and written languages can be described as a lexemes (sometimes called system of symbols) and the rules by which the symbols are used. The word “language” is also refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others who surround them. There are millions of human languages, and these seem to share certain properties, even though many of the shared properties have some exceptions. Though there is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Bella is credited as saying that “a language is a dialect with a navy or an army”. Constructed languages such as programming languages, and various mathematical formalars are not really restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

verbal communication

A verbal or dialouge is a reciprocal conversation between two or more entities (individuals, animals e.t.c).

The etymological origins of the word in Greek dialete ??? (diá,through) + ?????(logos, word,speech) concepts like flowing-through meaning) do not necessarily convey the way in which people have come to use the word, with some confusion between the prefix ???-(diá-,through) and the prefix ??- (di-, two) leading to the assumption that a dialogue is necessarily between only two parties.

 

Non-verbal communication

Non verbal communication is the process of communicating through sending and receiving wordless messages through gesture, body or posture languages, facial [removed]eye contact), object communication (clothing, hairstyles or architecture), or symbols or info graphics, as well as through an aggregate of the above, such as behavioral communication.

Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person’s day to day life, from employment to sexuality to parental responsiblities to romantic engagements.

Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known as paralanguage and prosodic features including voice quality, intonation, emotion and speaking style, rhythm, intonation and stress. Also, written texts may have said to contain nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, and the use of emoticons.A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols used to convey emotional content in written or message form.

Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travel from person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can communicate directly in this way without body language, voice tonality or words.

 

Non-Human Living Organisms Communication (NHLOC)

 

Communication in many of its facts is not limited to humans alone, or even to primates but to every information exchange between non-living living organisms i.e. transmission of signals involving a living sender and receiver can be considered as a form of communication. Though, there is the broad field of animal communication, which encompasses most of issues of ethology. On a more basic level, there is cell signaling, cellular communication, and chemical communication between primitive organisms like virus, bateria, and within the plant and fungal kingdoms. All of these communication processes are sign-mediated interactions with a great variety of distinct co-ordinations.

Animal communication is at any behaviour on the part of one animal that has an effect on the behavior of other animals. And of course human communication can be presumed as a highly developed form of animal communication called zoosemiotics which is distinguishable from the study of human communication called anthroposemiotics

has played an important part in the development of ethology, sociobiology, and cognition (the study of animal). This is an evident that humans are able to communicate with animals, especially animals like dolphins and other circuses animals. However, these animals may have to learn the special means in which they can communicate. Animal communication, and the understanding of animal world in general is a rapidly (constant) growing field even in the 21st century so far, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture and learning, and even sexual conduct, long thought to be well understood, which have been well revolutionized. Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the rootzone. Plant roots communicate in parallel with rhizobia bacteria, with fungi and with insects in the soil. This parallel sign-mediated interactions which are governed by syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules are possible because of the decentralized “nervous system” of plants. As recent research shows 99% of intraorganismic plant communication processes are neuronal-like. Plants also communicate via volatiles in the case of herbivory attack behavior to warn neighboring plants. In parallel they produce other volatiles which attract parasites which attack these herbivores. In Stress situations plants can overwrite the genetic code they inherited from their parents and revert to that of their grand- or great-grandparents

Fungi communicate to co-ordinate and organize their own growth and development such as the formation of mycelia and fruiting bodies. Additionally fungi communicate with same and related species as well as with non fungal organisms in a great variety of symbiotic interactions, especially with bacteria, unicellular plants and insects. The used semi chemicals are of biotic origin and they trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, in difference while to even the same chemical molecules are not being a part of biotic messages doesn’t trigger to react the fungal organism. It means, fungal organisms are competent to identify the difference of the same molecules being part of biotic messages or lack of these features. So far five different primary signalling molecules are known that serve to coordinate very different behavioral patterns such as filamentation, mating, growth, pathogenicity. Behavioral coordination and the production of such substances can only be achieved through interpretation processes: self or non-self, abiotic indicator, biotic message from similar, related, or non-related species, or even “noise”, i.e., similar molecules without biotic content.

 

Communication in relation to academic discipline

Communication as an academic discipline, sometimes called “communicology”, relates to all the ways we communicate so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes both verbal and nonverbal messages. A body of scholarship all about communication is presented and explained in textbooks, electronic publications, and academic journals. In the book, researchers report the results of studies that are the basis for an ever expanded understanding of how we all communicate with one individuals or the next.

Communication happens at many levels even for one single action, in many different ways, and for most beings, also in certain machines. If not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication, so when speaking about communication it is very important to be sure about what aspects of communication one is speaking about. Definitions of communication range